Feminism

GENDER
1. Feminism
1.1 History of Feminism
At first, woman didn’t have an independent in job, they didn’t allow to got the same right in job like men, until they made a great step to get the same right like a men. The earliest women’s group within the Labour party was the Women’s Labour League. This was founded in 1906 with the purpose of encouraging support for the party amongst women. Although sharing some of the concerns of the equal rights feminists, the labour women were much closer to the new feminism of Eleanor Rathbone. Like the new feminist they believed that most women would make marriage and motherhood their main preoccupation throughout their lives and their greatest need, therefore, was for an improvement in their lives within the home. For this reason they placed a great deal of emphasis on the need for saver maternal health and improved housing, as well as financial assistance to families, whether this took the form of family allowances or assistance in kind.
In 1918 the main suffrage organization still in existence was the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS), the constitutional wing of the prewar suffrage movement. Its rival, the Women’s social and Political Union (WSPU), led by Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughter, Christabel, had been disbanded at the outbreak of war in a wave of patriotic fervour on the part of the two Pankhursts. Apart from the NUWSS the most important suffrage group to survive the war was the Women’s Freedom League. This was itself a breakaway from the WSPU and represented a similar, if less violent, militant tradition.
A second international organization, the International council of women, founded as early as 1888, was conceived largely as an umbrella organization of other women’s groups. It did not at its inception concern itself with suffrage, but was involved nevertheless in a wide range of other women’s issues. During the 1920s the NUWSS, now the National Union of Societies for Equal Citizenship ( NUSEC ), was certainly the most important of the women’s groups, working for equal rights.

An examination of women’s groups associated directly with the labour and trade union movement has been reserved for another chapter, but the National Union of Women Teachers (NUWT) presents us with a special case. Although a trade union, the NUWT was heavily involved in a wide range of feminist issues outside its members professional concern as teachers. The struggle for equal pay was, it is true, their central concern, as was the fight against the marriage bar, but they were also active for many years in a number of other campaigns. At the same time their links were with other feminist groups rather than with the labour and trade union movement.
Initially NUSEC, like other feminist groups, was opposed to any legislation which limited women’s employment opportunities, but by the mid 1920s there were growing pressures from within the organization for a change of policy. found within the labour and trade union movement, and who believed sincerely that such legislation was necessary if working women were to be protected from harmful working conditions and excessive hours of work. Both Holtby and Brittain, in spite of their sympathies with the labour movement, had serious doubts about its consequences, since they believed that it carried the implication that women were the weaker sex. Brittain also argued against special privileges for women, since she believed that they weakened women’s claim for equal status and equal pay.
As a result of the controversy a new organization, the Open Door council, was formed in 1926, specifically to oppose restrictions on women’s employment opportunities, followed in 1929 by an international organization to work at the international level.
The birth control movement also attracted wide support from women’s groups. NUSEC for example came out in favour in 1926 and the National Council of Women in 1929. by the 1930s too there was growing interest amongst women’s group on the subject of abortion, sparked off by the large numbers of deaths in childbirth, believed to be to some extent the effect of illegal abortions. The National Council of Women was particularly anxious about the figures on maternal mortality and harassed the Ministry of Health on the issue. In October 1935, not long before the foundation of the Abortion Law Reform Association in 1936, they advocated a committee of enquiry and in 1935 passed the first of a series of resolutions, calling for abortion law reform.

This was because both the birth control movement and the abortion law reform campaign were able to take advantage of current anxieties about maternal and morbidity and the health of working class mothers in general.
The achievement of equal pas was however to prove more difficult since the Labour government of 1945, in spite of its support in principle, refused to implement the policy in practice. The Equal Pay Committee went out of existence in 1956 and a few years later the feminist NUWT also disbanded, driven to this by the lack of recruits from the new generation of teachers. The Women’s Freedom League also ceased to function in 1961.
During the 1950s therefore there was a loss of confidence in the feminists goals of the 1920s and 1930s, and especially in women’s right to independence whether this was seen in financial terms or in their right to a life of their own. Certainly if they were married they had no right to follow a career which threatened their prior responsibility to their husband and children
     By the 1960s, there is evidence that the mood was changing, although it is not until the 1970s that the distinctive arguments of the modern feminists movement begin to widely heard. During the 1960s too, there was growing support for changes in family law to give greater protection to divorced and deserted wives, a support which owed a great deal to the fear aroused by proposals not only to make divorce easier but to make it possible for a man to divorce his wife without her consent




1.2     Figures
WINFRED HOLTBY
Born        : in 1898
Parents    : David Holtby (a Yorkshire farmer) and Alice Holtby.
Education    : Winifred was educated at home by a governess and then at a boarding
   school. She passed the entrance exam for Somerville College .
1918        : Winfred was joined the Women's Auxiliary Army Corps.
  Soon after she arrived in France the First World War came to an end.
  It was caused Winfred must left her school.
1919         : Returned to Somerville College. Here, Winfred met with Vera Brittain
  (the other feminism figure in U.K), and then they were graduated together.
1921        : Holtby and Vera Brittain were   moved to London.
  In London,they hoped to establish themselves as writers.
Winfred’s creations : Winifred had more success in wrote than Vera. Her book creation
  such as; Anderby Wold (1923), The Crowded Street (1924) and The
  Land of Green Ginger (1927).
Career and work : Winifred was great demand as a journalist. She is also wrote for more
                           than twenty newspaper and magazine.
1931        :  Winifred began to suffer with high-blood-pressure. With so many diseases
in her body, her doctor told her that she only had two years to live. Before                  she died, she still remaining all of remaining energy to finish her last book,
South Riding.
1935        : Winifred Holtby was died on 29th September, 1935.


Emmeline Pankhurst

Country    : Great Britain.
Background    : The Reform Acts of 1832, 1867 and 1884 extend the right to vote to all
   British men. But women are excluded. Women and their supporters unite to
   fight for full and equal voting rights.
1879         : She marries Richard Marsden Pankhurst, a lawyer who drafted an
  amendment to the Municipal Franchise Act of 1869 which allowed
  unmarried women householders to vote in local elections, and who wrote the
  Married Women's Property Acts in 1870 and 1882.
1889         : She helps found the Women's Franchise League.
1894         : The league wins the right for married women to vote in elections for local
  offices, but not the right for them to vote for the House of Commons.
1895         : She holds a succession of municipal offices in Manchester.
1903         : She founds the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) in Manchester.
1905         : The suffrage movement attracts wide attention in October when two of its
   members, Christabel Pankhurst and Annie Kenney, are jailed. After being
   thrown out of a Liberal Party election rally for demanding a statement about
   votes for women, the two were arrested in the street for a technical assault
   on the police but refused to pay their fines.
1917                 : Because so many problems appeared and involved with law, the WSPU changes its name to the Women's Party.
1918                 : The Representation of People Act is passed in February. The act gives the vote to women over 30.


1926                 : Pankhurst returns to England and is chosen as the Conservative candidate for an east London seat, but her health fails before she can be elected.
1928             : She dies on 14 June in London, a few weeks after the Representation of the People Act establishing voting equality for men and women is passed.

Vera Brittain

Born               : Vera Mary Brittain was born in Newcastle Under Lyme on December, 29th 1893.
Nationality     : English.
Parent             : Hanley and Cheddleton.
Occupation    : Writer, author, and journalist.
Spouse            : George Catlin.
Children         : John Brittain-Catlin, Shirley Williams.
Education       : St Monica's, Kingswood in Surrey where her aunt was principal. Studying English Literature at Somerville College, Oxford, she delayed her degree after one year in the summer of 1915 in order to work as a nurse for much of the First World War.
1923                :  Brittain was Published her first novel, The Dark Tide. After that, Vera continue to publish another her novel, such as; Testament of Friendship (1940) – her tribute to and biography of Winifred Holtby – and Testament of Experience (1957).
1925                : Brittain married George Catlin, a political scientist and philosopher.
1970                : Vera Brittain died on March, 29th 1970.



1.3 Their Work
As the explained above, the three woman figures in United Kingdom has an amazing work to woman progress there. As we know, Winfred Holtby works as writer and journalist for more than twenty years in newspaper and magazine. Holtby has some great novels from her written, such as;  Anderby Wold (1923), The Crowded Street (1924) and TheLand of Green Ginger (1927). Even, holtby had more success than her old friend, Vera Brittain in novel world.
About Vera Brittain, she had ever worked as a nurse for much of the First World War. She also worked as a novel writer. Her first novel is The Dark Tide. And her another novel such as; Testament of Friendship (1940) – her tribute to and biography of Winifred Holtby – and Testament of Experience (1957).
Different from other woman figure, Emmeline Pankhurst. She worked as a political who attempt for woman liberation in vote. She has ever jailed for her effort. Even she still continue her effort until she die and finally she can get her dream. 

2. Government Treatment Towards Men & Women
2.1 Jobs
Employers recruitment practices risk discrimination claims
UK organizations could be leaving themselves open to discrimination payouts of millions of pounds from job seekers, according to a report by The Work Foundation, which highlights inadequate monitoring of job applicants for diversity.
The survey of 470 private and public sector employers - Recruitment and Selection - shows that one-third of organizations fail to monitor the diversity of external job applicants and 38% do not assess the diversity of internal candidates.
Under employment law, it is illegal for employers to discriminate against applicants on the basis of sex, disability or race. From December 2003, it will also be illegal to discriminate on the grounds of sexual orientation and religion or belief. Legislation prohibiting age discrimination

will not come into effect until December 2006.
The report by The Work Foundation also highlights the tendency among many employers to encourage word-of-mouth candidates. Just over a quarter (27%) of respondents say they have a policy of actively encouraging employees to recommend friends.
The Commission for Racial Equality and the Equal Opportunities Commission both warn against word-of-mouth recruitment where the workforce is predominantly composed of one sex or racial group - a practice that tends to perpetuate any existing imbalance.

2.2 Education
In early and middle of 90’s, inequality in education happened in United Kingdom. The Inequality is the difference male and female in education happened on subject which took by them. Majority of female students prefer to home economics, religious studies, modern languages, English literature and social studies (more than two – third students taking the subjects were female). Of course, the choice of subjects will implicate to further to choice career in life for future equality.Of course it’s implicated some conflicts in education world. Let’s see to below information.

The solution of all that appear on 21st century. Inequality in curriculum can be reduced by a national curriculum which provides a common entitlement to all pupils. We need to ensure that future debate about the national curricula is informed by principles of equality.

2.3 Insurance
As from 6th April 2008, UK insurers who use gender as a factor in the calculation of premiums and benefits have been required to publish the data on which such assessment in based.
The rule stems from the UK’s implementation of the EU Gender Directive 2004, which required all member states to apply the principle of equal treatment between men and women in the access to and the supply of goods and services, including insurance.


3. The Force Supporting Equality in Gender
3.1 Institutions
1.      Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU).
This institution was established at October 1903 and ended at 1917. WSPU founded in Manchester by Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters. The WSPU aimed to ‘wake up the nation’ to the cause of women suffrage through ‘Deeds not Words’. In 1906 the headquarters of WSPU is relocated to London cause the transformed the suffrage movement.
For the next eight years, the fight to vote became a highly public and sometimes violent struggle played out against backdrop of Edwardian London. WSPU attracted the public by taking their campaign to streets. The suffragettes became a familiar sight in central London with purple, white and green color scheme. A London base provided the opportunities for staging spectacular demonstration. Women’s Sunday in June 1908, the first ‘monster meeting’ is held by WSPU, brought suffragettes from all over the United Kingdom to march in seven different processions trough central London to Hyde Park. The highly choreographed demonstration attracted a crowd of up to 300,000, drawn by the spectacle of the delegates dressed in the suffragette tricolor and carrying over 700 banners.
The Coronation of George V in 1911 inspired the WSPU to organize its own spectacular coronation pageant. The four-mile suffragette Coronation Procession through central London culminated in a rally at the Royal Albert Hall and involved over 60,000 delegates dressed in national and historical costume. The suffragette campaign was masterminded from WSPU headquarters, initially established at 4 element's Inn, Strand and, from 1912, at Lincoln's Inn, Kingsway. Both salaried and volunteer office staff organized fund-raising events, public meetings and demonstrations and produced the weekly newspaper, Votes for Women, which had a circulation of 22,000 by 1909. The WSPU established 90 branches throughout the United Kingdom but London remained the chief area of support with 34 local offices.



2.      Townswomen's Guild
The Townswomen's Guild is a British women's organization. Townswomen's Guilds were formed at the instigation of Margery Corbett Ashby and Eva Hubback as an experiment in the study of citizenship in 1929. The first four guilds formed were: Haywards Heath , Burnt Oak , Moulsecoomb and Romsey . Townswomen are encouraged to have ideas and views, develop new skills, campaign on various issues, support each other, make new friends and above all, have fun. There are approximately 34,000 members, 840 branches and 86 Federations throughout England , Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland .(Figures updated February 1st 2010).
In 1932, 146 guilds had now been formed. At the Annual General Meeting it was agreed to drop all political propaganda and to concentrate on the education of women as citizens . This resulted in the resignation of several members who subsequently formed the National Council for Equal Citizenship .
The organization changed its name to the National Union of Townswomen's Guilds (NUTG) in 1933.

3.      National Federation of Women's Institutes
This organization was established at 1915 and ended at 1992.

4.      Fawcett Society
The Fawcett Society is an organization in the United Kingdom which claims to promote feminism and campaign for women's rights. It is a registered charity with the Charity Commission. It grew out of the suffragist movement of the second half of the 19th century, and in 1953 was renamed the Fawcett Society, in honour of founder Millicent Fawcett who led the peaceful suffragist movement. It had previously been called the London and National Society for
10
Women's Service , and originally the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies . The organisation states that it campaigns on "women's representation in politics and public life; pay, pensions and poverty; valuing caring work; and the treatment of women in the justice system". The library and archives of the Society, formerly the Fawcett Library , are now part of the Women's Library at London Metropolitan University .

5.      Women’s Institute for Secure Retire.
This organization founded at 1996.


3.2 The Conflict of Struggle They Have
        There are some conflicts in United Kingdom in effort to get same right same as men. For example in early of 20th century when Emmeline Pankhurst, woman figure in United Kingdom, found an organization which are uniting political woman. It called Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU). In 1906 Pankhurst organized marches and rallies and campaigns against the Liberal government's candidates at elections. Her followers interrupt meetings of Cabinet ministers. The women are disparaged as "suffragettes" by the 'Daily Mail' newspaper but the movement proudly adopts the description. Pankhurst was jailed in 1908 because of the incident.
    After that, WSPU and Pankhurst’s attempt still continue. On 18 November 1910, a deputation from the WSPU including Pankhurst attempts to gain admission to the House of Commons to see Prime Minister Asquith and protest against the dropping of the Conciliation Bill, which would have given women the vote. But Pankhurst is refused entry by the police. So, it develops into a riot when the women try to break through the police lines. Over 100 women are arrested on charges varying from disturbing the peace to assaulting police officers, although most


charges are subsequently dropped. Many of the women accuse the police of brutality. The day comes to be known to the suffragettes as 'Black Friday'.
        The debated about the woman right to participate in voting still continue until Pankhurst die on  June, 14th 1928. A few weeks after the Representation of the People Act establishing voting equality for men and women is passed.

       
3.3 Specific Field
Either of real application happened in education world. Men and women are different from the subject which taken by them. As we know from explanation before, Majority of female students prefer to home economics, religious studies, modern languages, English literature and social studies (more than two – third students taking the subjects were female). So, we can draw a conclusion that they are some subjects that taken by men pupil, but didn’t take by women pupil. Contrary, they are some subjects that take by women pupil, but aren’t taken by men pupil. 


4. Inequality Happening in UK
4.1 Education
The relationship between education and social-class inequality was one of the classic problems in the UK. Both political and academic changed in the 1980s, most obviously because New Right ideology regarded social inequality as a not particularly important. The idea of something approaching a common curriculum was debated by radicals as far back as the 1920s, as part of their campaign for 'secondary education for all', and was no real preparation for life as a citizen in a democracy. In 1950s, research on this has been most thorough in Scotland, where Gamoran (1996a,b) has shown that the common curriculum at ages 14-16 that was developed in the 1980s reduced social class differences in access to a reasonably broad range of knowledge.


For example, he found that, in the early 1980s, only some 20% of the most socially deprived students were studying mathematics at these ages, in contrast to 86% of the most socially advantaged students. By the early 1990s, the advantaged proportion had risen to 97%.

4.2 Get a Job
In Great Britain overall, women working full-time earn:
  18.5% less than men’s average hourly earnings excluding overtime,
  17.9% less than men’s average hourly earnings including overtime, and
  25.2% less than men’s average weekly earnings in April 2001.
However in some parts of Great Britain the gender gap in pay was wider and in some parts narrower.
Hourly earnings for both sexes were higher in England than Scotland or Wales. Earnings in England are highest in London, where women and men earned an average of £12.99 and £16.62 per hour respectively. The next highest earnings were found in the South East, followed by the East. The lowest average hourly earnings for women were £8.52 per hour in the East Midlands and the North East, whilst the lowest average earnings for men in England was £10.15 per hour in the North East.
The biggest gender pay gap was found in London, where women earned as much as 21.8% per hour less than men. The smallest gap was found in Wales, where women earned 12.3% less than men. This is partly due to low male earnings in Wales, which at £10.01 per hour are lower than in any of the English regions or Scotland.
Given that hourly rates of pay were highest in London it is not surprising that weekly earnings are also highest in London. On average women earned £483 and men earned £668 per week (pw). The lowest average weekly earnings for women (£318pw) were in the North East and for men (£412pw) were in Wales.


Again the largest gender pay gap for weekly earnings was in London and the South East, where women earned 27.6% and 27.5% respectively less than men’s weekly earnings. The smallest pay gap was again in Wales, where women earned 20.6% less than men’s weekly earnings.
Comparing occupational groups, the highest average hourly rate of pay for women and men was for health professionals, with averages of £19.58 and £25.15 per hour respectively. Even in this group, women earn 22.1% less than men. Women earn slightly more than men on average in protective service (2.4%) and secretarial (1.1%) occupations.
On average, hourly pay (excluding overtime hours and pay) is highest for men in banking, insurance and pension provision, where the gender pay gap is widest, and women earned 42.9% less than men. The highest pay rates for women were in the education and banking, insurance and pension provision sectors. Education is one of four sectors where women earned 90% or more of men’s hourly earnings. The other sectors being agriculture, hunting and forestry, construction, and transport, storage and communication.

4.3 Life Insurance
Insurance companies often charge different rates for men and women:
As from 6th April 2008, UK insurers who use gender as a factor in the calculation of premiums and benefits have been required to publish the data on which such assessment is based.
The rule stems from the UK's implementation of the EU Gender Directive 2004, which required all member states to apply the principle of equal treatment between men and women in the access to and the supply of goods and services, including insurance.
Insurers in the UK were already prevented from treating men and women differently under the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 (and in Northern Ireland the Sex Discrimination (Northern Ireland) Order 1976).
The Act, however, included an exemption allowing insurers to discriminate on gender grounds, provided it was with reference to "actuarial or other data from a source on which it was reasonable to rely" and the treatment was reasonable "having regard to that data and any other relevant factors".


As a result, insurers have continued to take gender into account in the calculation of premiums and benefits in life and critical illness policies, annuities, private medical insurance, travel insurance, motor insurance and other types of cover where data shows that the sex of the insured can have an effect on the risk.
The Gender Directive did not alter that position, but it tightened up the scope of the exemption.
It provided that member states could allow "proportionate differences" in premium and benefits where the use of sex is a "determining factor" in the assessment of risk "based on relevant and accurate actuarial and statistical data", provided member states ensure that such data is "compiled, published and regularly updated" (article  5).
The Directive also prohibited differences in premium and benefits resulting from costs relating to pregnancy and maternity.